Electronics

/ɪnˈdʌktər/

noun … “Component that stores energy in a magnetic field.”

Inductor is a passive electronic component that resists changes in current by storing energy in a magnetic field created around a coil of wire. Inductors are widely used in filtering, energy storage, tuning circuits, and electromagnetic interference suppression. They work in tandem with capacitors and resistors to form fundamental building blocks of analog circuits.

Key characteristics of Inductor include:

• Inductance: measured in henries (H), representing the ability to store magnetic energy per unit current.
• Current response: opposes changes in current according to V = L × (dI/dt).
• Core material: air, ferrite, or iron cores influence efficiency and magnetic properties.
• Applications: filters, transformers, chokes, energy storage in switching regulators, and oscillators.
• Series and parallel behavior: determines total inductance in circuits.

Workflow example: Current change in an inductor:

inductor = Inductor(L=0.01)   -- 10 mH
di_dt = 5                     -- rate of current change in A/s
voltage = inductor.L * di_dt
print(voltage)                 -- 0.05 V

Here, the inductor generates a voltage opposing the change in current, stabilizing the circuit.

Conceptually, an Inductor is like a flywheel for electric current: it resists sudden changes and smooths out fluctuations.

See Capacitor, Resistor, Signal Processing, AC, Power Supply.

/ˈɛnərdʒi/

noun … “Capacity to do work.”

Energy is a fundamental physical quantity that represents the ability of a system to perform work, produce heat, or cause physical change. In electrical systems, energy is the total work done by electric charges moving through a potential difference over time, typically measured in joules (J). Energy can exist in multiple forms, including kinetic, potential, thermal, chemical, and electrical.

Key characteristics of Energy include:

• Unit: measured in joules (J), where 1 J = 1 watt-second.
• Electrical energy: E = P × t, the product of power and time.
• Conservation: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed between forms.
• Transfer: energy moves through circuits, mechanical systems, or waves.
• Storage: energy can be stored in batteries, capacitors, flywheels, or fuel for later use.

Applications of Energy include powering devices, moving machinery, heating and cooling systems, chemical reactions, and transportation.

Workflow example: Calculating energy consumption of a device:

power = 60       -- watts
time = 2         -- hours
energy = power * time * 3600   -- convert hours to seconds
print(energy)    -- 432,000 J

Here, a 60 W device running for 2 hours consumes 432,000 joules of electrical energy.

Conceptually, Energy is like the fuel in a tank: it stores potential to do work and can be released in controlled ways to power systems or devices.

See Power, Voltage, Current, Electricity, Battery.

/ˈpaʊər/

noun … “Rate of doing work or transferring energy.”

Power in electrical systems is the rate at which energy is transferred or converted by an electrical circuit. It is determined by the product of voltage and current, representing how much work is being done per unit time. Power is a critical measure for sizing circuits, selecting components, and understanding energy consumption.

Key characteristics of Power include:

• Unit: measured in watts (W), where 1 W = 1 V × 1 A.
• DC power: P = V × I, with voltage and current constant over time.
• AC power: can include real, reactive, and apparent power, depending on phase difference between voltage and current.
• Energy relation: total energy consumed over time is the integral of power (E = ∫ P dt).
• Heat and work: power determines how quickly energy is delivered to loads, producing motion, light, or heat.

Applications of Power include electrical appliances, motors, lighting, batteries, and energy management systems.

Workflow example: Calculating power in a DC circuit:

voltage = 12       -- volts
current = 2        -- amperes
power = voltage * current
print(power)       -- 24 W

Here, the circuit delivers 24 watts of power, converting electrical energy into useful work or heat.

Conceptually, Power is like the strength of a river: it measures how much water (energy) flows through per second to do work on a waterwheel.

See Voltage, Current, Resistance, Energy, Electricity.

/ˈkʌrənt/

noun … “Flow of electric charge.”

Current is the rate at which electric charge flows through a conductor or circuit, typically carried by electrons in metals or ions in electrolytes. It is one of the fundamental concepts in electricity, working alongside voltage and resistance to describe how electrical energy moves and performs work in circuits.

Key characteristics of Current include:

• Unit: measured in amperes (A), representing one coulomb of charge per second.
• Direction: conventional current flows from positive to negative, opposite to electron flow.
• Types: Alternating current (AC) reverses direction periodically; Direct current (DC) flows in one direction.
• Relationship to voltage and resistance: governed by Ohm’s law, I = V / R.
• Effects: produces magnetic fields, generates heat, and enables work to be done in electrical devices.

Applications of Current include powering electronic devices, motors, lighting, heating elements, and communication systems.

Workflow example: Calculating current through a resistor:

voltage = 9       -- Volts
resistor = 1000    -- Ohms
current = voltage / resistor
print(current)     -- 0.009 A (9 mA)

Here, current is determined by the applied voltage and resistance, flowing through the circuit to perform work.

Conceptually, Current is like the flow of water through a pipe: the amount of water passing a point per unit time corresponds to electric current.

See Voltage, Resistance, Power, AC, DC.

/ˈvoʊltɪdʒ/

noun … “Electrical potential difference between two points.”

Voltage is the measure of electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit. It represents the force that drives electric charges to move through a conductor, creating current. Voltage is fundamental to understanding and designing electrical and electronic systems.

Key characteristics of Voltage include:

• Unit: measured in volts (V).
• Polarity: has positive and negative terminals indicating direction of potential difference.
• Source types: can be supplied by batteries, generators, solar cells, or power supplies.
• AC vs DC: can alternate in direction (AC) or remain constant (DC).
• Relation to energy: energy delivered to a charge is the product of voltage and charge (E = V × Q).

Applications of Voltage include powering circuits, driving motors, charging batteries, and controlling electronic devices. Understanding voltage is essential for calculating current, resistance, and power in circuits.

Workflow example: Calculating current using Ohm's law:

resistor = 1000   -- Ohms
voltage = 5       -- Volts
current = voltage / resistor
print(current)    -- 0.005 A

Here, voltage drives current through the resistor according to Ohm’s law.

Conceptually, Voltage is like water pressure in a pipe: it determines how strongly charges (or water) are pushed through the system.

See Current, Resistance, Power, AC, DC.

/ɪˌlɛkˈtrɪsɪti/

noun … “Flow of electric charge.”

Electricity is the phenomenon resulting from the presence and flow of electric charges, typically electrons, through a medium. It manifests as current (current), voltage (voltage), and electromagnetic fields, and it powers almost all modern devices, from lights and motors to computers and communication systems. Electricity can be harnessed in alternating current (AC) or direct current forms.

Key characteristics of Electricity include:

• Current: flow of charge, measured in amperes (A).
• Voltage: potential difference driving the flow, measured in volts (V).
• Resistance: opposition to current flow, measured in ohms (Ω).
• Power: energy delivered per unit time, measured in watts (W).
• Frequency: number of cycles per second in AC, measured in hertz (Hz).

Common applications of Electricity include powering electronics, heating, lighting, transportation, industrial machinery, and telecommunications. Understanding electricity is essential for designing circuits, energy systems, and electronic devices.

Workflow example: Simple circuit powering a light:

battery_voltage = 9
resistor = 1000
current = battery_voltage / resistor
light.power(current)

Here, electricity flows from the battery through the resistor to the light, producing illumination according to Ohm's law.

Conceptually, Electricity is like a river of tiny charges flowing through a conductive path, delivering energy wherever it travels.

See Current, Voltage, Power, AC, DC.

/ˈbætəri/

noun … “Device that stores chemical energy and provides electrical power.”

Battery is a portable energy source that converts stored chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions. Batteries provide direct current (DC) electricity, powering devices ranging from small electronics like smartphones and watches to large systems like electric vehicles and backup power grids. They consist of one or more electrochemical cells, each containing electrodes (anode and cathode) and an electrolyte that facilitates ion flow.

Key characteristics of Battery include:

• Voltage: electrical potential difference across its terminals.
• Capacity: measured in ampere-hours (Ah), representing how much charge it can store.
• Energy density: amount of energy stored per unit weight or volume.
• Rechargeability: primary (non-rechargeable) vs. secondary (rechargeable) batteries.
• Internal resistance: affects efficiency and power delivery.

Common types of Battery include alkaline, lithium-ion, lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and solid-state batteries. Batteries are used in consumer electronics, electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, medical devices, and backup power systems.

Workflow example: Supplying power to a circuit:

battery_voltage = 9
circuit.connect(battery_voltage)
device.power(circuit.output)

Here, the battery provides DC voltage to power the device through the connected circuit.

Conceptually, a Battery is like a water tank storing energy: it holds potential energy and releases it when needed to keep the system running.

See DC, Power Supply, Energy Storage, Voltage, Current.

/ˈfaɪnɪt steɪt məˌʃiːn/

noun … “Model of computation with a limited number of states.”

Finite-State Machine (FSM) is an abstract computational model used to design sequential circuits or software systems. It consists of a finite set of states, a set of inputs that trigger transitions between states, and a set of outputs determined by its current state (and sometimes input). FSMs are widely used for modeling control logic, communication protocols, parsers, and embedded systems.

Key characteristics of Finite-State Machine include:

• Finite number of states: the system can only be in one state at a time.
• State transitions: movement between states triggered by input events.
• Deterministic or nondeterministic: deterministic FSMs have exactly one next state per input, while nondeterministic FSMs can have multiple possibilities.
• Outputs: determined either solely by state (Moore machine) or by state and input (Mealy machine).
• Applications: control systems, protocol design, sequence detection, UI navigation, and parser design.

Workflow example: Simple traffic light controller:

states = ["Green", "Yellow", "Red"]
current_state = "Green"

def transition(input_event):
    if current_state == "Green" && input_event == "timer":
        return "Yellow"
    elif current_state == "Yellow" && input_event == "timer":
        return "Red"
    elif current_state == "Red" && input_event == "timer":
        return "Green"
    return current_state

current_state = transition("timer")

Here, the traffic light cycles through a fixed set of states based on input events, illustrating a deterministic FSM.

Conceptually, a Finite-State Machine is like a board game with defined spaces: the player moves from one state to another according to the rules triggered by dice rolls or cards.

See Sequential Circuit, Flip-Flop, Digital, Control Logic, State Transition.

/ˈflɪp flɑːp/

noun … “Basic memory element in digital circuits.”

Flip-Flop is a bistable sequential circuit that can store one bit of binary information, holding a state of 0 or 1 until it is changed by a control signal. Flip-flops are the building blocks of digital memory, registers, counters, and finite state machines (FSMs), providing the essential ability to store and remember information in digital systems.

Key characteristics of Flip-Flop include:

• Bistable operation: maintains either a high (1) or low (0) state indefinitely until triggered.
• Clocked or triggered: changes state based on input signals and/or clock edges.
• Types: SR (Set-Reset), D (Data), JK, and T (Toggle) flip-flops, each with different input behavior.
• Applications: memory storage, counters, shift registers, synchronization, and state machines.
• Edge sensitivity: many flip-flops change state on the rising or falling edge of a clock signal.

Workflow example: D flip-flop storing a bit:

d_input = 1
clk_edge = detect_rising_edge(clock)
if clk_edge:
    q_output = d_input   -- store input at clock edge

Here, the flip-flop captures the value of d_input at the clock edge and maintains it until the next trigger.

Conceptually, a Flip-Flop is like a light switch with memory: once set, it stays in the on or off position until someone flips it again.

See Sequential Circuit, Registers, Finite State Machine, Clock Signal, Digital.

/ˌmaɪkroʊˈprɑːsɛsər/

noun … “Central processing unit on a single integrated circuit.”

Microprocessor is a compact electronic chip that contains the core computational components of a computer or embedded system, including the central processing unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers. Microprocessors execute instructions stored in memory, perform arithmetic and logical operations, and control data flow between peripherals, making them the heart of modern computing devices.

Key characteristics of Microprocessor include:

• Instruction execution: processes binary instructions according to its instruction set architecture (ISA).
• Registers: temporary storage for immediate data and control information.
• ALU: performs arithmetic and logical operations.
• Clocked operation: synchronized by a clock signal to perform sequential operations.
• Integration: often includes cache memory and bus interfaces on the same chip.

Applications of Microprocessor include personal computers, servers, smartphones, embedded controllers, robotics, and industrial automation systems. Microprocessors serve as the central control and computation unit in virtually all digital devices.

Workflow example: Simple instruction execution:

instruction = memory.fetch(pc)
decoded = microprocessor.decode(instruction)
result = microprocessor.execute(decoded)
pc = pc + 1

Here, the microprocessor fetches, decodes, and executes instructions sequentially, updating its program counter for the next operation.

Conceptually, a Microprocessor is like a tiny brain on a chip: it receives information, decides what to do, performs calculations, and sends commands to the rest of the system.

See CPU, Integrated Circuit, Microcontroller, ALU, Registers.